Divine Kingship in Mesoamerica and the Book of Mormon

Weights and Measures from the Old World to the New

"Laws of Eshnunna" tablets found at
(Tell Harmal) Baghdad, Iraq.

The early stages of the Nephite civilization began with a population of more or less around 50 people.  It is assumed that due to the difficult process and circumstances the time allotted in getting from the old world to the new that this would be enough to deculturalize this small group of refugees.  If that was indeed the case by the time they arrived from Jerusalem to what has been assumed was somewhere in Mesoamerica (possibly southwestern Guatemala) shortly after 600BC than within a few hundred years they had become a very cultured civilization through mixing with the indigenous population.  By 82 BC they had established a form of government consisting of judges and a court system with laws and regulations for the Nephite civilization.  This same level of sophistication was incorporated all the way down to a monetary system of weights and measures of goods designed for barter and daily wages.  It states in Alma chapter 11 the names of the different weights and measurements of gold, silver, barley and other grains and how they coincide for daily use.  These names and measurements were established by the Nephite king at the time named Mosiah.

Other old world ancient civilizations appear to have used a similar code of conduct for their wages and barter system.  This can be seen in the "Laws of Eshnunna" which consists of two tablets found at Shaduppum (Tell Harmal) Baghdad, Iraq.  They were unearthed in 1945 and 1947 and are copies of an older source that dates back to 1930 BC. Similar to the barter system established among the Nephites the Laws of Eshnunna allowed people to deal confidently with barley, silver, oil, lard, wool, salt, bitumen and different forms of copper.  Both appear to have been instituted by kings and established daily wage value as well as penalties. 

Because the Laws of Eshnunna predate the Book of Mormon by over 1300 years some antagonists would be quick to call for more evidence like this dating to Book of Mormon timeframes (600BC-400AD).  Although less than 2% of all known ruin sites in Mesoamerica have been excavated we do have some promising leads of archaeological evidence especially in the area of a site known as El Zotz.  El Zotz is a Mayan archaeological site in Guatemala just west of Tikal.  In 2010 Stephen Houston of Brown University led the excavation of a tomb that roughly dated between 350-400 AD.  According to partially deciphered hieroglyphics on the tombs walls the occupants name translates into "Red Turtle" or "Great Turtle".  Inside the tomb were found many relics and objects.  Of particular interest was a pile of 15 hematite cubes or ingots precious pigment.  Kristina Cheung, in her peer review of the findings entitled, "Inferring Ancient technology and Practices of the Elite Maya Kingship Through the Application of Materials Engineering Characterization Modalities" states the following,

Hematite Ingots found in tomb at El Zots Guatemala
(top right hand corner)

"The specular hematite ingots (15 of them) found at this archaeological site are the first of this quantity and form to be recorded in the Maya region.  The pigment is not indigenous to the area, which confirms that these ingots must have been imported from other parts of the Maya area such as central Mexico.  The scarcity of the pigment ingots is the most likely due to their status as valued trade objects."

Stephen Houston himself stated, "I would also note what came as a great surprise to me was the presence of balls of basically cubes of precious imported pigment which was remarkably uniform in height and these appear to be literally a kind of trade ingot of a precious substance that's been heaped like so much gold in a Swiss Bank vault in the corner of the tomb.  And it's some of the first evidence we have ever seen of systems of measurement used by traders in the Maya lowlands."

So these precious hematite uniformed sized ingots appear to be some of the first evidences we have of a uniform system of measurement that would have been used by traders throughout the area when dealing with specific materials.  Future excavations throughout the area will hopefully be able to support these findings.  This would line up great with the claims quoted above by King Mosiah in the Book of Mormon  and would have been something that would have been considered ridiculous by naysayers of the Book of Mormon at the time of its translation in the early 1800's.  It goes to show that with a little time and patience things that at one point may have seemed outlandish such as a civilization in the new world that was on a level of sophistication that it would allow for it's own monetary system, may not be as absurd as once thought.  In fact it seems to be logically right on target with the original suggestion of the Book of Mormon.   

Cortez, the Aztecs and Judges in The Book of Mormon

Aztec Marketplace

I want to post this interesting little tid-bit that I had stumbled across from John Sorenson a while back but for one reason or another I haven't put anything together for it. Of the many interesting parallels that can be found between the cultures of the Mayans and Aztecs when compared to those of the Nephites and Lamanites found in the Book of Mormon it is the interesting but often overlooked quick convergences like this that I really love.  It is as follows,

"Of the many other areas showing parallels to the Book of Mormon, consider the Mesoamerican justice system.  John Sorenson explains, (Images of Ancient America: Visualizing Book of Mormon Life, (Provo, Utah: Research Press, 1998), p. 116):

 "One of the primary duties of a ruler was to settle disputes among his people.  Sometimes that could be done by him personally, but in a population of much size, he would not have time to deal with every conflict.  Judges were delegated to carry out that duty.

Hernan Cortez

Cortez , for example, described the situation at the great market in the Aztec capital: "There is in this square a very large building, like a Court of Justice, where there are always ten or twelve persons, sitting as judges, and delivering their decisions upon all cases which arise in the markets." [Fernando Cortees:His Five Letters of Relation to the Emperor Charles V, ed. and transl. Francis A. MacNutt Mexico: Rio Grande Press, 1977) 1:259] In public assemblies, the Spaniards observed native police officers with pine cudgels (a short stout stick used as a weapon) who enforced order if required to do so by the authorities."

In the Book of Mormon Mosiah 29:25 it speaks of the time when the king of the land Mosiah proposes that a judge system with a Chief Judge at their head should be installed because unrighteous kings lead their people into sin.  The time keeping from this point on is referred to as the first year of the 'reign of the judges' continuing from the forward to the 2nd,3rd, and 4th year of the reign of the judges and so on. 

"Therefore, choose you by the voice of this people judges, that ye may be judged according to the laws which have been given you by our fathers, which are correct, and which were given them by the hand of the Lord."

In Joseph Smiths time the Native American cultures were looked upon as a savage and primitive people hardly capable of putting together such a complex society that composed of markets, merchants, judges and different classes of citizens as was later found in Mesoamerica.  Although it was during Joseph Smiths lifetime that the knowledge of Mesoamerica spawned, it was still in its infancy when the Book of Mormon was translated. Meaning that this is another direct hit for the Book of Mormon.


 

The Ancient and the Academic Hugh Nibley’s Teachings, Dealings and Understanding of the Hopi

I am posting a link to an article I wrote a while a go for the Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum entitled, 'The Ancient and the Academic Hugh Nibley’s Teachings, Dealings and Understanding of the Hopi".  Its a great read and I had fun collecting the material that I used to put this together.  It is a collection of three of my favorite subjects, the Hopi, Hugh Nibley and the gospel. I have posted the link below.  I hope you enjoy it and please feel free to leave me any feedback.  Thanks!


http://www.bmaf.org/node/451
 

Since I've Been Gone

Picture from Mark's Blog of Jadeite item plaque -
masks & ceremonial knife from Guatemala

I would like to apologize that I haven't been able to post very much research here lately.  I have been extremely busy with work, my artwork, Book of Mormon research, and my children's soccer games (in no particular order).  With that said I have a remedy for the situation.  I promise I will be posting much more in the very near future.  I would also like share the blog of a friend of mine Mark Cheney.  His blog is called "The Book of Mormon & My Maya Travels & Collection"  Its a fascinating blog and his collection of items insights and the pictures he shares are truly priceless to those of us who can't get enough of this stuff. 



He has contributed multiple articles through BMAF.org (Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum) and is also the author of novel entitled "Mark of the Jaguar, A Book of Mormon Adventure In The Land of the Maya"  Listen to the description of this novel and tell me you're not intrigued!!!!

"MARK OF THE JAGUAR, a landmark novel, a unique Book of Mormon adventure AFTER 421 A.D. and before Columbus! Based on real archaeological finds in Mesoamerica, the land of the Maya, this tale follows a young man as he is trained as a shaman, healer, scribe and stonecutter, as he accepts the challenge given by his old mentor from his death bed. Yax Kan will do what is needed to find the truth about Kukulkan, the white and bearded god represented by the feathered serpent. Who is he? Is he worthy of worship - even to the point of human sacrifice? Come join Yax Kan in some life-changing experiences that will thrill and delight!"

I have included the like to his blog and would advise following him as I have.  I promise you will not be disappointed! I have also included the link to his book, "The Mark of Jaguar" below.  Please follow him and don't be shy on sharing his posts with your friends and family via Facebook or email. 



Author House Bookstore Link for the Book:
http://bookstore.authorhouse.com/Products/SKU-000732724/MARK-OF-THE-JAGUAR.aspx

Link to Marks Blog:
http://mayacollection-cheney.blogspot.com/

Link to one of Marks articles on BMAF.org entitled, "Samabaj, The Underwater Village In Lake Atitlan and the Book of Mormon":

http://www.bmaf.org/sites/bmaf.org/files/image/samabaj.pdf

Some ruins from Samabaj in Lake Atitlan

 

Ammon and the Monsters of Mesoamerica

Ammon before King Lamoni

This post is in regards to an idea that crossed my mind while doing some family scripture study and reading about Ammon in Alma 19:26 which states:

"But others rebuked them all, saying that he was a monster, who had been sent from the Nephites to torment them."

The story line is when Ammon is preaching the gospel to King Lamoni and his family and they all fall into a trance including his wife the Queen, servants as well as Ammon while either retaining a remission of their sins or being overwhelmed by the Holy Spirit.  It is during this scenario that Abish a servant of the Queen draws the communities attention to what has happened in the confines of the King's home.  When people gather to see what has happened many say because the King allowed Ammon a Nephite (their sworn enemies) among their community, others say it is because King Lamoni killed his servants whenever they lost his sheep at the waters of Sebus.  At one point some people refer to Ammon as the Great Spirit or as someone who was sent by the Great Spirit and others referred to him as a monster that had been sent by the Nephites to torment the Lamanites.  As I have mentioned numerous times in this blog, I tend to look for hints of Mesoamerica in the text of the Book of Mormon.  I couldn't help but wonder if the use of the word "monster" is referring to something similar to the Mesoamerican or Mayan belief in monsters or creatures?



Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in Belize

In Mesoamerican religions and folklore the belief of monsters is very common place.  A monster could be anything form the Hauy Chivo which is a legendary Mayan creature that is half-man half-beast who is often noted as a sorcerer or shaman with the ability to transform himself into a supernatural animal (also known as a Nagual or Shape-shifter) to the Vision Serpent who was a religious symbol used by the Maya to describe a vehicle by which the sun, starts and the moon would cross the heavens (often associated with Quetzalcoatl).  There are many types of monsters that are associated with mountains or caves and their ability to bring those who enter to a sacred area.  There are many cave entrances that have been carved to have the face of a monster or being, usually with the cave's entrance being the creature's mouth.  Water was also commonly associated with caves or mountains so it was also considered to have spiritual significance.  Cenotes are pits or sinkholes that expose ground water and are commonly used as places of sacrifice.  Anthropologists James E. Brady and Wendy Ashmore had this to say about the use of caves and cenotes as places of implication,

"Desire to be near the sacred has influenced Mesoamerican settlement.  Mountains and caves were important elements in Mesoamerican creation myths.  Mesoamerican belief systems link water to fertility and mountains give flowing water and rainfall through caves.  Accordingly, these natural features were considered sacred and were sought out by Mesoamerican migrants looking for a new home.  A cave could be considered an axis mundi if it marked the center of a village.  The Late Post classic site of Mayapan incorporated several cenotes into its ceremonial groups and the Cenote Ch'en Mul is at the site core.  At Dos Pilas house platforms were often in front of cave entries and the tunnel went beneath the platform."

As noted above there were ties between these caves associated with water or cenotes that were common as a spiritual place or an axis mundi, a place where the heavens and underworld meet this world.  This creating a place where the unexplained or mythical beings or creatures could be accessed.  This is seen with the Hopi sacred Kachinas and the sipapuni which is a hole to the underworld.  Could the Lamanites actually have held the water of Sebus as a ceremonial place or axis mundi where a deity or monster such as Ammon could surface?

The waters of Sebus were a place where the Lamanites took the kings flocks (and I suppose other Lamanite flocks) to get water and graze.  It was at these waters of Sebus that Ammon first displayed deity like attributes when he slayed Lamanites who attempted to scatter the kings flocks by using only his sling and some stones.  He then smote off the arms of any of those who attempted to confront him in their anger with his sword.  It was such an astonishing feet that his fellow servants saved those smitten arms to display to the King as a show of Ammon's power.

It was common practice among the Lamanites to attempt to scatter the flocks in this ways as if it were a game of chivalry according to Alma 18:7 which states,

"Now it was the practice of these Lamanites to stand by the waters of Sebus to scatter the flocks of the people,  that thereby they might drive away many that were scattered unto their own land, it being a practice of plunder among them."

With the above referenced information I ask is it plausible that those of the community who had gathered and witnessed the things that had happened to the King and his family, including his servants and Ammon, could they be referring to Ammon as a "monster" in the sense of  Mesoamerican terms of a "monster" or supernatural being who may have some association with an axis mundi at the waters of Sebus?  It could make sense in a Mesoamerican setting.  I suppose if we had more information about the waters of Sebus such as where it's headwaters existed (possibly from a cave or a mountain) and any other settings or uses for the waters such as a place of ceremony or sacrifice (or other games of chivalry) as cenotes were commonly used for, then we could obtain further clarification or if the use of the word "monster" were more frequently used in the Book of Mormon than we could reference this with stronger ties.  Until then I offer this as an area opened for further thought and discussion.



 

Book of Mormon Names in Saudi Arabia

Old City al-Ula Saudi Arabia

The vast majority of my blog posts deal either with a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon on in regards to insights or evidence given for the Book of Mormon when compared to the culture and ceremonial practices of the Hopi.  This post will differ to some degree with a the focus devoted to the earlier chapters of the Book of Mormon, or in particular to the early setting of the Book of Mormon in the deserts of Saudi Arabia and the early travels of Lehi and his family .  This post is influenced by the research and scholarship of George Potter, Richard Wellington and that of Lynn and Hope Hilton.  As I have stated in previous posts I have enjoyed some of the insights and conjectures given in George Potters DVD's "Discovering Lehi's Trail" and "The People of Lehi" both of which can be purchased on his website www.nephiproject.com. In these documentaries and some of the research papers completed by Mr. Potter he shares some interesting insights on Book of Mormon names found throughout the trail taken by Lehi and his family into the desert on the way to the land of Bountiful.  This trail for the most part is known to historians as the Frankincense Trail. 

When Lehi and his family (this included Ishmael and his family as well as Zoram) started their journey into the wilderness, heading south from Jerusalem they shortly found themselves in   Northern Arabia at the head of the Frankincense Trail around the 6th century BC.  This area is known as al-Ula or Dedan which was the capital city of the Lihyanite Empire.  It is theorized that Lehi and his family spent time in this area preaching the gospel during their wandering.  We know that they did preach the gospel according to D&C 33:7-8.  So the idea is that descendants of some of the converts of Lehi and Nephi named the empire in honor of these great leaders and teachers.  It was common to name tribes or communities after local heroes or traditional elite figures so this theory does fit a historical setting.  Potter notes that Dedan was part of the Frankincense Trail that was known and used from the time of Ramesses II (2nd Millennium B.C.) to Mohammed (6th Century B.C.) It is precisely in the Dedan area that would have been considered the more "fertile parts" which is the course Lehi and his family traveled.

Potter points out that the name Lihy was also carried through the Lihyanite kings quoting Dr. Al-Anary who wrote, "Lihyanite inscriptions were found along the trade routes in Tayma and Al-Fau (approximately 1,000 miles).  In Tayma, a black obelisk mentions, "Fadju, shahro bin Malik Lihyan", son of the king of Lihyan" ('an' makes a word plural in Arabic).  Pliny, who died in 19 A.D. referred to the Gulf of Aqabah as the "Gulf of Laeanitie."

Lihyanite Inscription that includes the name 'Sam'

The Hiltons discovered and noted that the name 'Nafy' is used as a personal name on a 3rd-4th century tomb by al-Ula.  In 2004 another Lihyanite inscription in the same valley of al-Ula included the name of 'Sam'.  Potter then points out a thought provoking insight into the name of Sam being found in Arabia.  He states that the Hebrew version of the name Sam is 'Samuel' and the Arabic version is 'Sami' but the Book of Mormon pronunciation is exactly the same as the Lihyanite version 'Sam'.  He also noted that another Lihyanite inscription of the name 'Sam' is displayed on the National Museum of Saudi Arabia with the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History website.  Potter finishes by pointing out that no westerner had visited the land of the Lihyanites until it was discovered by Charles Doughty in 1876 approximately 46 years after the Book of Mormon had already been translated by Joseph Smith.  Once again there is no way Joseph could have known that these names were in common use in modern day Saudi Arabia exactly were the Book o Mormon says they would be.  So I add this as one more insight that leads to the plausibility of the Book of Mormon, as well as another area of interest for future research and scholarship. 

DNA and the Book of Mormon

This is one of my favorite FAIR LDS production videos.  It covers a lot of information and does a great job especially in handling the DNA issue.  This is an issue that is so commonly thrown around and so commonly misunderstood....to the point it is frustrating.  Anyways this video is a bit long but very thorough. Enjoy

The Tower of Babel, Zacuali and Early Mexican History

Mariano Veytia

So recently I obtained a copy of Mariano Veytia's "Ancient America Rediscovered" which I was excited to get because I am familiar with some of the other early authors and historians who recorded the history of Mexico and Guatemala through documents, paintings, statues, charts and diagrams.  Being familiar with the writings of Fernando De Alva Ixtilxochitl I wasn't surprised to see that Veytia quotes and compares Ixtilxochitl's writings with that of his own and that of his mentor Lorenzo Boturini.  With many of the comparisons being in regards to dating specific events using different calendar approaches I won't be getting into the specifics of those comparisons but instead will be briefly going over one event in general and how that compares to a similar event found in the Bible and the Book of Mormon.

The event in question is that of the confounding of the languages at the Tower of Babel found in Genesis 11:1-9 in the Bible.  As the story goes the people of the earth created a tower so that they could reach heaven.  The creation of this tower displeased the Lord so he scattered the people and confounded their languages.  Although there are only a few short verses covering this obviously massive event in human history located in the Bible we get more information from the Book of Mormon through a prophet named Ether. 

According to Ether, at the scattering of the people and confounding of the languages there was a man named Jared whose brother (who was named Mahonri Moriancumer) was highly favored of the Lord.  Through the compassion of the Lord these brothers, their families and a few others with their families were able to avoid having their language confounded and they were led by the Lord to a choice land in the Americas through a route that required them to build eight barges in which to sail to the Promised Land.  Upon landing in the Americas they became a great civilization called the Jaredites.  They eventually dwindled away through wars and contentions and unbelief .  It is thought by current LDS scholars and apologists that the correlations and timeframe of events of the Jaredites coincides well with the Olmec civilization that resided in modern day southern Mexico and Guatemala around 2500-500 BC.

With the above noted information from both the Bible and the Book of Mormon  the only obstacle that stands in our way is to see if this information can be confirmed through new world history and documents.  This post is an attempt to do just that. 

early map showing what is in the center of the Great
Pyramid of Cholula (a spiral pyramid)

In Veytia's "Ancient America Rediscovered" he shares the following,

"Returning to pick up the thread of our history, I say that the human race had multiplied considerably, and they say that men, fearful of another flood, and wanting to make their name famous, undertook the construction of a very tall tower to which they gave the name Zacuali, ...when they were the most involved in the construction of their tower, suddenly their languages were confused so that they did not understand each other, and so the construction ceased and everyone divided up, spreading out over the whole face of the earth.  This information noted in so much detail by the Toltec nation, from whose historical charts it was obtained by the authors who wrote in these monarchies of Mexico and Texcoco, was found to be in agreement and without variation among the Indians of Chiapa, as affirmed by Francisco Nunez de la Vega, the bishop of that diocese, in the prologue of his Constituciones diocesanas (diocese constitutions), who assets that in his archives he keeps an old manuscript of the first natives from there, who learned how to write our characters, in which it is on record that they always kept the memory that the first progenitor and father of their nation was named Tepanahuaste, which means the Lord of the Hollow Pole, and that Tepanahuaste was at the construction of the great wall, as they called the tower of Babel, and with his own eyes he saw the confusion of tongues, after which the Creator God commanded him to come to these extensive lands to distribute them among men."

In addition to this history Dr. Jerry Ainsworth and his colleague Esteban Mejia (both Book of Mormon scholars and historians) advised that upon reaching the Promised Lands in southern Mexico that the Jaredites built a similar tower or pyramid to remember what had caused their trials they faced in migrating to the Promised Lands.  It was advised that this pyramid was a spiral pyramid built in Tulan (Tula) which they traced back to modern Cholula.  Of this Ainsworth stated in his book" The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni" that,

"Ruins in the state of Puebla themselves go back to the time of the Quinamis, who were contemporary with the Olmec.  The pyramid of Cholula in that area, which is the largest structure in the world, consists of many built-over pyramids.  When archaeologists dug tunnels into this structure to document the number of superimpositions, they concluded that the original pyramid in the very center was built by people who lived at the time of the Olmec (Jaredites), around 2500 B.C.  Archaeologists now make distinction between the Olmec, the ancient people of the Caribbean side of Mexico, and the people of the central highlands of Mexico (valleys of Puebla and Tlaxcala, and those of the west coast of Mexico.  It appears that although these people shared similar cultural traits and habits, they were considered distinct and separate "countries."

The Great Pyramid of Cholula

In Dr. Ainsworth's and Dane Hurt's documentary "Finding Moroni" Mejia and Ainsworth attempt to get to the center of the Cholula pyramid but only can go so far since it has been built over by many pyramids and most recently by a Catholic church (with a portion of one of the ancient pyramid temples still protruding out of the side) but they do offer an older drawing or map showing a conical or spiral pyramid at the center.  They also site an ancient fragmentary account mentioning the first pyramid at Cholula which was on the wall of the mayor's palace in that same City.

So with the culmination of the information provided we see that there are early native accounts that fit quite well with what the prophet Ether stated took place in the Book of Mormon.  I would like to advise that when dealing with these early accounts that they be taken with a grain of salt.  This is because many of them are post Spanish Conquest and are considered questionable due to the high influence of Christianity pushed (or forced) by the conquistadors.  Many of the second hand oral traditions used to compile some of the codices definitely predate the conquest but with how much accuracy we are unable to tell.   This is because we are limited on comparable documents because most (all but four) of the pre-Hispanic codices were burned and destroyed by the early Catholic friars in fear that they were teaching idolatry.  With that warning I still share these insights because as I noted above we have multiple historians (Veytia, Ixtilxochitl and Boturini as well as others) who seem to share many of these same conclusions without having any knowledge of the Book of Mormon.  Thus allowing these insights to remain exactly that "insights" not necessarily evidence, but with the assistance of future research and the possibility of other codices coming forth to confirm this information it remains to attest to the plausibility of  and historicity of the Jaredites in the Book of Mormon. 

 

Egyptian Female Gods, The Book of Abraham and the Hopi Hemis Kachina

Book of Abraham Facsimile 3

Critics of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints for years have pointed out an apparent error made by Joseph Smith in his translation of the Egyptian facsimile 3 found in the Book of Abraham.  There are a handful of questions with Joseph Smith's translation that are ongoing for further research but this post will be focusing on one in particular.  Before I go into details on the assumed error I would like to note that facsimile 3 is probably the least researched facsimile of the three facsimiles we have in the Book of Abraham by LDS scholars and apologists.  With that said there is plenty of information on the facsimile that is to be had so the question at hand relates to the Egyptian goddesses of Isis and Maat shown as figures 2 and 4 in facsimile 3.

Maat and Isis

To even the most untrained eye's it is plain to see that the figures of the Egyptian goddesses Isis and Maat are female figures.  But according to Joseph Smiths translation he states that figure 2 (Isis) is the Pharaoh and figure 4 (Maat) is the Prince of Pharaoh, both male characters.  So the question is how could Joseph make such a blunder?  Or is it a blunder at all?

According to Hugh Nibley's "Abraham in Egypt" page 229 he points out that the Egyptians mixed gender roles and linked humans with gods in ritual scenes, which is exactly what we have her in facsimile 3.  Now in Hugh Nibley's "All the Courts a Stage: Facsimile 3, a Royal Mumming" he traces the changing gender roles to the claims of patriarchal vs. matriarchal succession stating that it was not the patriarchal line for priesthood authority that Pharaoh followed but a matriarchal line thus not holding the proper authority and also opening the door for the changing gender roles during any ceremonial rituals.

The Egyptian goddess Isis was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife.  The name Isis actually means "Throne" her headdress is a throne and as a personification she represented the Pharaohs power which in itself is an interesting correlation to Joseph Smiths translation.  Figure 4 Maat is said to bring order to the world and her presence in the ceremonial depiction is required for imparting of the legitimate rule along with her mother Isis.  Maat means "truth" in Egyptian and also helped guide the sun god Re in his boat across the skies.  It was Maat that determined the course of that boat thus assisting with the order and timing of the harvest and other seasons. 



Hopi Hemis Kachina

So now that I have briefly covered the role of the female goddesses in facsimile 3 in the Book of Abraham, I would like to revert to classic Nibley fashion and tie in a Hopi correlation.  It is always interesting how the Hopi ritual practices tie into ancient near eastern practices in many different aspects.  The portrayal of the Hopi Kachinas have a relevant tie in the above noted Egyptian female god scenario, but first I would like to share the purpose of the Kachina.  The Hopi Kachina represents a spirit or deity, beginning with the Winter Solstice and extending to about mid-July, masked dancers initiated into the various clans of the Hopi Pueblos impersonate these spirits.  Both male and female Kachinas are personified by costumed men-rarely ever women-wearing elaborate masks with headdresses, or as carved and painted dolls which are used as gifts which the Kachinas distribute to women and children along with toy bows (for boys), rattles, fruits and candy.  The Kachina dolls are used to teach the children the traditional stories and represent an animal, plant or deity in spirit.  There are hundreds of different Kachinas of which only a certain few are female Kachinas.  These include maiden Kachinas such as corn, warrior, and butterfly maidens.  The Hopi Pachavuin Mana also known as the female Hemis Kachina Mana, if masked this figure is a women.  The Hemis Kachinas represents a successful harvest season of squash, beans and corn or the ability, authority or blessing to have a successful harvest.  Interesting when compared to the position that Maat played in assisting Re in the suns course and harvest seasons. 

 So we have another culture with a similar ceremonial practice that allows the authoritative roll of a woman to be depicted by a man in a ceremonial setting.  I am assuming that this may be a somewhat common practice among other cultures but just wanted to show a religious ceremonial setting that correlates well with what Joseph Smith has described in his translation of facsimile 3.  I don't offer this as an answer to all issues or questions that may arise from the translation of the facsimile only as a correlation to the explanation offered by Nibley to the inquiries of figures 2and 4 on the above referenced facsimile.