Cortez, the Aztecs and Judges in The Book of Mormon

Aztec Marketplace

I want to post this interesting little tid-bit that I had stumbled across from John Sorenson a while back but for one reason or another I haven't put anything together for it. Of the many interesting parallels that can be found between the cultures of the Mayans and Aztecs when compared to those of the Nephites and Lamanites found in the Book of Mormon it is the interesting but often overlooked quick convergences like this that I really love.  It is as follows,

"Of the many other areas showing parallels to the Book of Mormon, consider the Mesoamerican justice system.  John Sorenson explains, (Images of Ancient America: Visualizing Book of Mormon Life, (Provo, Utah: Research Press, 1998), p. 116):

 "One of the primary duties of a ruler was to settle disputes among his people.  Sometimes that could be done by him personally, but in a population of much size, he would not have time to deal with every conflict.  Judges were delegated to carry out that duty.

Hernan Cortez

Cortez , for example, described the situation at the great market in the Aztec capital: "There is in this square a very large building, like a Court of Justice, where there are always ten or twelve persons, sitting as judges, and delivering their decisions upon all cases which arise in the markets." [Fernando Cortees:His Five Letters of Relation to the Emperor Charles V, ed. and transl. Francis A. MacNutt Mexico: Rio Grande Press, 1977) 1:259] In public assemblies, the Spaniards observed native police officers with pine cudgels (a short stout stick used as a weapon) who enforced order if required to do so by the authorities."

In the Book of Mormon Mosiah 29:25 it speaks of the time when the king of the land Mosiah proposes that a judge system with a Chief Judge at their head should be installed because unrighteous kings lead their people into sin.  The time keeping from this point on is referred to as the first year of the 'reign of the judges' continuing from the forward to the 2nd,3rd, and 4th year of the reign of the judges and so on. 

"Therefore, choose you by the voice of this people judges, that ye may be judged according to the laws which have been given you by our fathers, which are correct, and which were given them by the hand of the Lord."

In Joseph Smiths time the Native American cultures were looked upon as a savage and primitive people hardly capable of putting together such a complex society that composed of markets, merchants, judges and different classes of citizens as was later found in Mesoamerica.  Although it was during Joseph Smiths lifetime that the knowledge of Mesoamerica spawned, it was still in its infancy when the Book of Mormon was translated. Meaning that this is another direct hit for the Book of Mormon.


 

The Ancient and the Academic Hugh Nibley’s Teachings, Dealings and Understanding of the Hopi

I am posting a link to an article I wrote a while a go for the Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum entitled, 'The Ancient and the Academic Hugh Nibley’s Teachings, Dealings and Understanding of the Hopi".  Its a great read and I had fun collecting the material that I used to put this together.  It is a collection of three of my favorite subjects, the Hopi, Hugh Nibley and the gospel. I have posted the link below.  I hope you enjoy it and please feel free to leave me any feedback.  Thanks!


http://www.bmaf.org/node/451
 

The Tower of Babel, Zacuali and Early Mexican History

Mariano Veytia

So recently I obtained a copy of Mariano Veytia's "Ancient America Rediscovered" which I was excited to get because I am familiar with some of the other early authors and historians who recorded the history of Mexico and Guatemala through documents, paintings, statues, charts and diagrams.  Being familiar with the writings of Fernando De Alva Ixtilxochitl I wasn't surprised to see that Veytia quotes and compares Ixtilxochitl's writings with that of his own and that of his mentor Lorenzo Boturini.  With many of the comparisons being in regards to dating specific events using different calendar approaches I won't be getting into the specifics of those comparisons but instead will be briefly going over one event in general and how that compares to a similar event found in the Bible and the Book of Mormon.

The event in question is that of the confounding of the languages at the Tower of Babel found in Genesis 11:1-9 in the Bible.  As the story goes the people of the earth created a tower so that they could reach heaven.  The creation of this tower displeased the Lord so he scattered the people and confounded their languages.  Although there are only a few short verses covering this obviously massive event in human history located in the Bible we get more information from the Book of Mormon through a prophet named Ether. 

According to Ether, at the scattering of the people and confounding of the languages there was a man named Jared whose brother (who was named Mahonri Moriancumer) was highly favored of the Lord.  Through the compassion of the Lord these brothers, their families and a few others with their families were able to avoid having their language confounded and they were led by the Lord to a choice land in the Americas through a route that required them to build eight barges in which to sail to the Promised Land.  Upon landing in the Americas they became a great civilization called the Jaredites.  They eventually dwindled away through wars and contentions and unbelief .  It is thought by current LDS scholars and apologists that the correlations and timeframe of events of the Jaredites coincides well with the Olmec civilization that resided in modern day southern Mexico and Guatemala around 2500-500 BC.

With the above noted information from both the Bible and the Book of Mormon  the only obstacle that stands in our way is to see if this information can be confirmed through new world history and documents.  This post is an attempt to do just that. 

early map showing what is in the center of the Great
Pyramid of Cholula (a spiral pyramid)

In Veytia's "Ancient America Rediscovered" he shares the following,

"Returning to pick up the thread of our history, I say that the human race had multiplied considerably, and they say that men, fearful of another flood, and wanting to make their name famous, undertook the construction of a very tall tower to which they gave the name Zacuali, ...when they were the most involved in the construction of their tower, suddenly their languages were confused so that they did not understand each other, and so the construction ceased and everyone divided up, spreading out over the whole face of the earth.  This information noted in so much detail by the Toltec nation, from whose historical charts it was obtained by the authors who wrote in these monarchies of Mexico and Texcoco, was found to be in agreement and without variation among the Indians of Chiapa, as affirmed by Francisco Nunez de la Vega, the bishop of that diocese, in the prologue of his Constituciones diocesanas (diocese constitutions), who assets that in his archives he keeps an old manuscript of the first natives from there, who learned how to write our characters, in which it is on record that they always kept the memory that the first progenitor and father of their nation was named Tepanahuaste, which means the Lord of the Hollow Pole, and that Tepanahuaste was at the construction of the great wall, as they called the tower of Babel, and with his own eyes he saw the confusion of tongues, after which the Creator God commanded him to come to these extensive lands to distribute them among men."

In addition to this history Dr. Jerry Ainsworth and his colleague Esteban Mejia (both Book of Mormon scholars and historians) advised that upon reaching the Promised Lands in southern Mexico that the Jaredites built a similar tower or pyramid to remember what had caused their trials they faced in migrating to the Promised Lands.  It was advised that this pyramid was a spiral pyramid built in Tulan (Tula) which they traced back to modern Cholula.  Of this Ainsworth stated in his book" The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni" that,

"Ruins in the state of Puebla themselves go back to the time of the Quinamis, who were contemporary with the Olmec.  The pyramid of Cholula in that area, which is the largest structure in the world, consists of many built-over pyramids.  When archaeologists dug tunnels into this structure to document the number of superimpositions, they concluded that the original pyramid in the very center was built by people who lived at the time of the Olmec (Jaredites), around 2500 B.C.  Archaeologists now make distinction between the Olmec, the ancient people of the Caribbean side of Mexico, and the people of the central highlands of Mexico (valleys of Puebla and Tlaxcala, and those of the west coast of Mexico.  It appears that although these people shared similar cultural traits and habits, they were considered distinct and separate "countries."

The Great Pyramid of Cholula

In Dr. Ainsworth's and Dane Hurt's documentary "Finding Moroni" Mejia and Ainsworth attempt to get to the center of the Cholula pyramid but only can go so far since it has been built over by many pyramids and most recently by a Catholic church (with a portion of one of the ancient pyramid temples still protruding out of the side) but they do offer an older drawing or map showing a conical or spiral pyramid at the center.  They also site an ancient fragmentary account mentioning the first pyramid at Cholula which was on the wall of the mayor's palace in that same City.

So with the culmination of the information provided we see that there are early native accounts that fit quite well with what the prophet Ether stated took place in the Book of Mormon.  I would like to advise that when dealing with these early accounts that they be taken with a grain of salt.  This is because many of them are post Spanish Conquest and are considered questionable due to the high influence of Christianity pushed (or forced) by the conquistadors.  Many of the second hand oral traditions used to compile some of the codices definitely predate the conquest but with how much accuracy we are unable to tell.   This is because we are limited on comparable documents because most (all but four) of the pre-Hispanic codices were burned and destroyed by the early Catholic friars in fear that they were teaching idolatry.  With that warning I still share these insights because as I noted above we have multiple historians (Veytia, Ixtilxochitl and Boturini as well as others) who seem to share many of these same conclusions without having any knowledge of the Book of Mormon.  Thus allowing these insights to remain exactly that "insights" not necessarily evidence, but with the assistance of future research and the possibility of other codices coming forth to confirm this information it remains to attest to the plausibility of  and historicity of the Jaredites in the Book of Mormon. 

 

Book of Mormon and Mesoamerican Military Numbers

Battle of Cumorah aftermath

If the average Mormon was asked about the ending of the Book of Mormon most would speak of the great battle of Cumorah roughly around 380 AD.  Was this a legitimate "final" battle so to speak?  It would appear not.  Although it is considered the end of the Nephite civilization we know that the Lamanites and Gadianton Robbers did survive.  Among those two groups there were many Nephites who found it easier to deny their God and join forces with either the Lamanites or the Gadianton robbers to avoid being targeted for genocide. In the battle at Cumorah Mormon speaks about a massive amount of soldiers who were under his command and the command of 22 other Nephite leaders.  Each of these commanders had a regiment of 10,000 men whom they led to this final battle.  Now the Nephites were decimated but the numbers involved in this war has raised concern for critics of the Book of Mormon.  Because the Book of Mormon never names the modern day land where this takes place most LDS scholars have determined that due to these numbers, the use of a calendar system and a written language (among other geographical correlations) that the most logical location to support these points would be Mesoamerica (modern day Guatemala, Mexico and Belize).

John Sorenson emeritus professor of anthropology at BYU shares some interesting insights on military numbers in Mesoamerica in his book "Mormons Codex" so that we can compare them to the numbers reported in the Book of Mormon.

"Around AD 380, in the final battle that resulted in the extermination of the Nephite people, Mormon reported a Nephite force of 230,000 under his command (Mormon 6:10-15), although it is unclear whether the number referred only to warriors or the total population of the Nephites at the battle.  A legitimate question to ask is whether a quarter-million or even half a million (counting both sides), would make sense in Mesoamerican terms.

One relevant comparative datum comes from a tradition about the Toltecs in the 10th century.  Native historian Alva Ixtlilxochitl reported a tradition proclaiming that a three year war resulted in 5.6 million Toltec deaths.  Even discounting vastly for probable exaggeration, the size of the armies engaged in the conflict in Central Mexico would have been of an order of magnitude that easily encompasses the Nephite figure.  Furthermore, certain peoples in highland Guatemala shortly before the conquest are reported to have fought with armies of up to 200,000 on a side for decade after decade."

Bernal Diaz del Castillo
Conquistador of Spain
 

I share this information on the heels of a previous blog post that I put together entitled, "A couple of Nephite Combat Correlations" (link provided below) just a few short weeks ago.  It includes an insight that when combined with the above links in military numbers gives Mormon's account of Nephite war more probability in the Mesoamerican setting.  It is as follows,

"In correlation with the organization of the Nephite armies in groups of ten thousand as found in Mormon 6:14 in the climactic battle at Curmorah the Tlaxcalan forces whom Cortez met on his approach to the Aztec capital were organized into five armies: "of the followers of the old Xicotenga...there were ten thousand, of another great chief...another ten thousand, and of a third...there were as many more."  All this according to Bernal Diaz del Castillo: The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico."

From the following insights provided by John Sorenson we can see that the numbers provided in the final battle at Cumorah would be more than fitting in a Mesoamerican perspective.  This combined with Bernal Diaz del Castillo's insights on how these armies were divided  and commanded also makes the Mesoamerican connection to the Book of Mormon that much more probable.

http://inthecavityofarock.blogspot.com/2014/05/a-couple-of-nephite-combat-coorelations.html

Book of Mormon Evidences Fireside

This is a fireside that Tyler Livingston who is member of the Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum and a member of the FAIRLDS.org group did a few weeks back in Syracuse UT.  There are some great insights into this presentation.  It doesn't just focus on Book of Mormon lands and evidences although that is the main point to the presentation but he touches on a vast array of topics.  Enjoy!

From Teotihuacan to Tikal: Fire Is Born and the Book of Mormon

Stone Monument from Tikal representing the
arrival of Fire Is Born 378 AD

So I was recently directed to an interesting article from the August 2007 National Geographic titled, "The Maya: Glory and Ruin" by Guy Gugliotta.  In his article he speaks of a few different cases that changed the history and outcome of the Mayans.  One of the occasions was in regards to inscriptions on Stela 31 in Tikal that gives the date of January 8, 378 AD and speaks of four different people.  I will list these for people in hopes to give a better understanding of the circumstances that took place and to hopefully clarify an incorrect assumption I have previously seen tied to this story and to point out a convergence with what is taking place in the Book of Mormon during the exact same timeframe.

Not in any particular order the first person is Spear-thrower Owl who was a king at Teotihuacan (near modern Mexico City).  The second is his son Curled Snout (also known as C'ahc ay ayinon) who was a young man at the time this takes place.  The third is a military regent or commander under Spear-thrower Owl named Fire Is Born (also known as Siyaj K'ak').  And the fourth person is Great Jaguar Paw king of Tikal.  According to what archaeologists and Mayan experts have been able to put together based off of stela inscriptions it appears that on January 8, 378 AD under the instructions of Spear-thrower Owl he sent his military commander Fire Is Born and his army to Waka in central Peten.  Along with Fire Is Born was the kin's son Curled Snout.  Within a week of this date (January 16th, 378 AD) it appears that Fire Is Born and his military regiment along with support from garrisons of fighters from Waka traveled around 50 miles east to Tikal the most influential city in the region and conquered the city.  It is noted that on this same day the king of Tikal Great Jaguar Paw died, more than likely during this conflict. 

At this point a new era begins; Fire Is Born becomes an ambassador in Tikal taking the place of Great Jaguar Paw.  Although he has placed the king's son Curled Snout as the new King of Tikal, he is probably taking an ambassador/king or lord position until Curled Snout is considered competent enough to lead (Curled Snout would have been only 20 years old at the time).  It is during this time that notable changes take place not just in Tikal but also throughout the region.  Stela and shrines erected to previous rulers of Tikal were all defaced and new ones placed which show figures wearing Teotihuacan military regalia.  Fire Is Born spread the influence of Tikal throughout the Mayan lowlands as far away as Palenque, Uaxactun and other cities.  At one location a stela depicting a warrior guard in Teotihuacan garb is placed in front of a tomb in which archaeologists found the remains of two women, one pregnant, a child, and an infant.  Experts have concluded that these were the remains of Uaxactun's royal family, slain by Tikal's forces.  The king of Uaxactun was presumably taken to Tikal and sacrificed there. 



Mormon the Nephite military leader
and prophet

With this great sweep of military conquest from Teotihuacan to Tikal and surrounding areas around 378 AD it has been pointed out that this timeframe correlates well with what is taking place in the Book of Mormon  during this same period.  We read in Mormon 2 around 350 AD that on the heels of winning a few battles and regaining possession of the "lands of our inheritance" Mormon all the sudden makes a treaty with the Lamanites and Gadianton Robbers, "in which we did get the lands of our inheritance divided.  And the Lamanites did give unto us the land northward, yea even to the narrow passage which led into the land southward and we did give the Lamanites all the land southward."


Why would the Nephites on the heels of a victory which gave them there lands of inheritance, then sign a treaty splitting part of their lands of inheritance?  Well if the Mesoamerican LGT (Limited Geography Theory) model is a correct setting for the Book of Mormon this would place the Nephites in or around the narrow neck of land known as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec thus placing them right between the new encroaching superpower of Teotihuacan (Southern Mexico) and the lowland Maya civilizations (lowlands Guatemala) a perfect spot to be wiped away from either side (or both).  Now Fire Is Born is more than likely not anyone of note in the pages of the Book of Mormon but the influence that he brought with his conquering military and the implications that followed more than likely were part of the cause that eventually lead to the treaty and probably the eventual wiping out of the Nephite civilization.  This group of Teotihuacan sounds very similar to what we would know as the Gadianton Robbers also a power from the north (or northwest).   The Book of Mormon notes similar circumstances to those noted above about the handling of royal family of Uaxactun.  It states in Mormon 4:14,

"And they did also march forward against the city Teancum, and did drive the inhabitants forth out of her, and did take many prisoners both women and children, and did offer them up as sacrifices unto their idol gods."

Brand Gardner author and speaker on Book of Mormon and Mesoamerican studies has noted that, "In the greater context of Mesoamerican history, there is every reason to suppose that Mormon was concerned with militaristic influences coming from Teotihuacan.  The time period ascribed to Mormon's last Gadianton robbers directly parallels the time frame for the expansion of Teotihuacan and their particular brand of militarism throughout the Mesoamerican region.  The rise of the Gadianton influence beginning after 200 AD  in the Book of Mormon is a direct parallel to the rise of Teotihuacan's expanding influence, and the time period that saw the construction of many of the cement buildings in that city, including the temple of the feathered serpent which is now understood as dedicated to the cult of war.  This influence increased in geographic spread and physical presence from about this time until the time of Mormon, and continued after the close of the Book of Mormon.

Map of Mesoamerica

The epigraphic record of Tikal records the installation of a new ruler, Siyaj K'ak', who founds a new dynasty in 378 AD.  By iconographic and epigraphic representation, it is absolutely certain that he came from Teotihuacan, and his descendants thereafter ruled in Tikal. Many sites of the time witness either a change in ruling dynasties or an increase in militarism that is represented in new ways that clearly point to Teotihuacan influence.  When we place known Mesoamerican history side by side with Mormon's spiritual history, we find in both accounts militarism exacerbated by a small contingent of a foreign element from the lands northward.  The Book of Mormon timing for this description corresponds directly to the secular history of the expansion of Teotihuacan throughout  all of Mesoamerica, but particularly the Maya region to their south."

I have seen noted that by some LDS Mesoamerican geography followers that the name of C'ahc ay ayinon especially the "ayinon" section is close to the name Aaron who was a Lamanite commander according to Mormon 2:9.  Some have tried to tie him into Fire Is Born but upon further review it appears that C'ahc ay ayinon was not Fire Is Born but was Curled Snout the child king that was placed on the throne in Tikal (Fire Is Born is Siyaj K'ak').  This would place him after the time of Aaron in the Book of Mormon which makes any sort of correlation or convergence on that front highly unlikely.

Stela 31 Tikal

In closing we definitely have some conversion points to look into for further study with the parallel warfare sweep found throughout the land in the Book of Mormon and in Mayan history.  Another interesting thought is that both Fire Is Born and Mormon are from the lands north and would more than likely be from prominent families.  How did this assisted in the influence both held with their contemporaries?  As I noted above although we don't specifically have Fire IS Born named in the Book of Mormon we must also keep in mind that the first thing that he did was to destroy the stela of the conquered cities and deface objects virtually doing away with their previous history.  This would be similar to the burning of records found in the Book of Mormon and also not allowing the enemies history to survive.  Without these surviving histories we would have a hard time confirming any names to Lamanite or Gadianton leaders of the time.  I would also like to note that some Mayan scholars still debate about his role suggesting that Fire Is Born came from Kaminaljuyu (central highlands Maya) and merely had appropriated symbols of prestige and legitimacy from Teotihuacan.  This would make Fire Is Born coming from lands associated with the Land of Nephi which was Lamanite territory (although this seems to be the losing side of the debate).  With that said as believers in the Book of Mormon we should not fear history and should welcome these sparks of light on Mesoamerican history when they come.  They bring excitement and many times further insight and although  they are not the type of things that we should try to build a testimony on, they sure can create an environment that allows for continual study, faith and prayer in order to obtain that testimony.

 

Speculative Insights on How Many Languages Moroni Spoke

Those of you who know me know that I have been a fan of Jerry Ainsworth's way of looking outside the box to find interesting insights that can be obtained from his understanding of the Mayans and how they apply to the Book of Mormon.  I will be posting some of his short videos which really are food for thought.  Enjoy.

A Couple of Nephite Combat Correlations

Battle at Cumorah artwork by Terry Rutledge AD 385.

The aim of this post is in regards to a couple of correlations that the Book of Mormon seems to have gotten right about certain scenarios of military combat between the Nephites and Lamanites and what we know of how combat took place in Central America, mainly in the Mayan and Aztec geographic locations and time frames. In Mormon chapter 6 versus 11-15 it states,

11. And when they had gone through and hewn down all my people save it were twenty and four of us, (among whom was my son Moroni) and we having survived the dead of our people, did behold on the morrow, when the Lamanites had returned unto their camps, from the top of the hill Cumorah, the ten thousand of my people who were hewn down, being led in the front by me.
12. And we also beheld the ten thousand of my people who were led by my son Moroni.
13. And behold, the ten thousand of Gidgiddonah had fallen, and he also in the midst.
14. And Lamah had fallen with his ten thousand; and Gilgal had fallen with his ten thousand; and Limhah had fallen with his ten thousand; and Jeneum had fallen with his ten thousand; and Cumenihah, and Moronihah, and Antionum, and Shiblom, and Shem and Josh, had fallen with their ten thousand each. 

In regards to the above noted verses John Sorenson author of "Mormon's Codex" states,
"In correlation with the organization of the Nephite armies in groups of ten thousand as found in Mormon 6:14 in the climactic battle at Cumorah the Tlaxcalan forces whom Cortez met on his approach to the Aztec capital were organized into five armies: "of the followers of the old Xicotenga...there were ten thousand, of another great chief ...another ten thousand, and of a third...there were as many more."  All this according to Bernal Diaz del Castillo: The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico".

Captain Moroni and the
Title of Liberty by Joseph Brickey

Dr. Sorenson also provides us with another interesting correlation that is paralleled in Alma 46, which speaks of Captain Moroni who upon hearing of dissensions among his people (the Nephites)
he did the following,

12. And it came to pass that he rent his coat: and he took a piece thereof, and wrote upon it-In memory of our God, our religion, and freedom, and our peace, our wives, and our children-and he fastened it upon the end of a pole.
13. And he fastened on his head-plate, and his breastplate, and his shields, and girded on his armor about his loins: and he took the pole, which had on the end thereof his rent coat, (and he called it the title of liberty) and he bowed himself to the earth, and he prayed mightily unto his God for the blessings of liberty to rest upon his brethren, so long as there should a band of Christians remain to possess the land-

Dr. Sorenson then quotes an interesting insight also by Bernal Diaz who reported that commander's lead there men to battle with a "great standard" or flag on a pole strapped to their backs.  This correlates well with the standard erected better known as the, "Title of Liberty" by Captain Moroni as noted above. So in conclusion we have a couple of interesting insights or parallels in regards to the organizing of military forces and the practice of men being led to battle by a "great standard" or flag on a pole by their commander.  Both practices are found conveniently in the Book of Mormon and tend to lend themselves as more evidence of a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon.

 

Ancient Mesoamerican Political Titles and Leadership Succession and the Book of Mormon

Nephi about to slay King Laban

This blog post is based off of a few insights from John Sorenson's book, "Mormons Codex" that I found rather interesting.  They are parallels that coincide very well with the way that leadership was titled and leadership succession took place in ancient Mesoamerica (Maya and Aztec) and in the Book of Mormon among the Nephites and Lamanites.  The first parallel custom noted by Sorenson is in regards to the formal title of early nephrite kings of which Dr. Sorenson states,

"One of the things a king inherited was a formal title.  According to Quiche Maya tradition, their "first lord" was a man who had six sons.  He "engendered Keh Nay and five other sons, who were provided by this king as governors.  Hence until the Spaniards came the kings had this name [title] of Keh Nay because it is like [the title of many kings] 'Caesars' among the natives."

The Nephite account tells us that Lehi had six sons.  One of them Nephi became king of the Nephite faction of the immigrant population.  After "Nephi began to be old...he anointed a man [presumably a son] to be a king and ruler over his people" (Jacob 1:9).  His people being desirous to retain in remembrance his name, "the succeeding kings" were called by the people, second Nephi, third Nephi, and so forth according to the reigns of the kings; and thus they were called by the people, let them be of whatever name they would" (v.11).  Because of how far they are chronologically, the two instances (Quiche and Nephite) of the same practice are unlikely to be historically connected, but the parallel custom of giving a personal name as a royal title is at least extremely interesting."

The next insight Dr. Sorenson offered is in regards to the succession of leadership in which he advised, "People who are uninformed about the varied patterns of ancient royal succession might suppose that the right to kingship always passed from father to son, but other arrangements were sometimes preferred.  For instance, among the Quiche Maya, "the inheritance of titles usually passed from father to oldest son.  [but] if the older son was not fit to succeed, a brother of the ruler might inherit the office."  For the Chontal Maya of the Gulf Coast, "when a ruler died, he was succeeded by his brothers in turn, if any, before his oldest son succeeded."  The same practice prevailed among the Mexica (Aztecs) and elsewhere in Mesoamerica.

The Nephite pattern was similar: "Pacumeni was appointed, according to the voice of the people, to be a chief judge and governor over the people, to reign in the stead of his [deceased] brother Pahoran; and it was according to his right" (Helaman 1:13).  Seezoram killed his brother, presumably so he could succeed to his brother's office (9:6).  The custom was similar among the Lamanites: in the one case recorded in the Book of Mormon, when Amalickiah, the Nephite defector who had usurped rule over the Lamanites, was killed. "the brother of Amalickiah was appointed king over the people" (Alma 52:3).

So as Dr. Sorenson pointed out we have correlations between the ancient Mesoamerican political layout and that of the Nephite and Lamanite societies in the Book of Mormon.  The more these correspondences are brought to light the easier it will be to see the Book of Mormon in the light of a Mesoamerican setting.  The more we understand the people of the Book of Mormon in their cultural setting the better we can understand the covenants and promises contained therein.
 

Joseph Smith and Book of Mormon Geography

The Unfolding of the Scriptures

So this post is from the above video that was recently posted on the Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum Facebook page.  Its a video of Dr. John Lund speaking about the Dresden Codex and an interesting little insight about how the Mexican codices work in comparison to some of Alma's wording on unfolding the scriptures in the Book of Mormon.  Another insight John Sorenson noted is that "The book of Alma relates an account of book burning.  At the city of Ammonihah, women and children adherent to the church that Alma headed were "cast into the fire" to be burned alive , and their oppressors, who were leaders of the rival religious order of Nehors, "also brought forth their records which contained the holy scriptures, and cast them into the fire also, that they might be burned and destroyed by fire" (Alma 14:8).  From this incident we learn,

1. Multiple sacred records were possessed by lay worshippers
2. Records were combustible, that is, they were of similar material and that documents in everyday circulation were written on paper.

The ancient Pre-Columbian Mayan records known as a codex or codices fit the above description.  They were written in Maya hieroglyphic script on Mesoamerican bark cloth, made from the inner bark of certain trees.  The "paper" was known by the Nahautl word "amalt" and was named by the Mayas "huun".  Most of these books were destroyed in fires in the 16th century by the Conquistadors and Spanish priests.  Bishop Diego de Landa in July of 1562 wrote: "We found a large number of books in these characters and , as they contained nothing in which were not to be seen as superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all, which they (the Maya) regretted to an amazing degree, and which caused them much affliction." These codices in all likelihood contained the history, traditions, myths and stories, all of which has been lost except what was contained in four remaining codices.  About the loss of these codices and Mayan history archaeologist and anthropologist Michael D. Coe stated, "Our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and Pilgrims Progress)."

Mesoamerican Codices

Although its a sad loss there seems to be an insight into the workings of these codices and the way the prophet Alma worded his use of Nephite records or scriptures in Alma 12:1 which states, "Now Alma, seeing that the words of Amulek had silenced Zeezrom, for he beheld that Amulek had caught him in his lying and deceiving to destroy him, and seeing that he began to tremble under a consciousness of his guilt, he opened his mouth and began to speak unto him, and to establish the words of Amulek, and to explain the things beyond, or to unfold the scriptures beyond that which Amulek had done."

These ancient codices folded like an accordion so when they were closed they would be compact for carrying or for storage but if someone wanted to read the full history, story, or myth contained in the codex they would have to unfold the codex.  With that said we may have Alma giving us an insight into the setting of the Book of Mormon unknowingly with his wording.  I would like to add a side note, that when this insight started getting some attention Brant Gardner Book of Mormon scholar who has an M.A. in Anthropology advised a word of caution noting that, although the correlation with the word "unfold" is a cool correlation, it wasn't consistent enough in the scriptures (meaning it is only used this once) so since this isn't a foreign English idiom it may not be the most useful connection.

The Spread and Practice of Nephite/Lamanite Cannibalism and its Influence on Other Ancient Cultures

Pueblo Bonito at Chaco Canyon

The complex migration history held by the Pueblo and more specifically the Hopi and their relationship to the ancient civilizations in the South namely the Aztec, Maya and Olmec is one of the main reasons that I started this blog.  In general I have put much of my focus on correlations between book of Mormon groups thought to have been in Mesoamerica and correspondences they have with the Hopi, or any of their Anasazi predecessors.  Some of my favorite interrelations have been the connections between the peaceful "People of Ammon" and the Hopi.  Researching their parallels has brought interesting insights to my studies.  This blog post is still aiming at connections between the histories of these groups but with a focus on the more gruesome side of the pendulum.  Rather than focusing on the peaceful people of the Book of Mormon I am starting this post by quoting a sad and brutal part of the Lamanite and Nephite history in Moroni 9:8-10 which takes place around 400AD. and states,

"8. And the husbands and fathers of those women and children they have slain; and they feed the women upon the flesh of their husbands, and the children upon the flesh of their fathers; and no water, save a little, do they give unto them. 
9. And notwithstanding this great abomination of the Lamanites, it doth not exceed that of our people in Moriantum.  For behold, many of the daughters of the Lamanites have they taken prisoners; and after depriving them of that which was most dear and precious above all things, which is chastity and virtue-
10. And after they had done this thing, they did murder them in a most cruel manner, torturing their bodies even unto death; and after they have done this, they devour their flesh like unto wild beasts, because of the hardness of their hearts; and they do it for a token of their bravery."



Aztec Cannibalism from Codex from Machilabechiano

Here we have the charge of cannibalism among the Nephites and lamanites.  The topic of cannibalism can be an emotionally charged and controversial issue  when applied to the ancients of the Maya, Aztec and especially the Anasazi.  We know through traditional stories that the migration routes of many of the clans that make up the Hopi and Zuni and other Pueblo tribes today lead through the Ancestral Pueblo home of Chaco Canyon in north western New Mexico.  My most recent visit of Chaco has sparked my interest in their position of the migration process.  With the above noted cannibalism present in the declining Nephite/Lamanite society, I ask the question what signs do we have in the progenitor societies that this practice continued?

Well it's been a commonly known fact from the diaries of the Spanish conquistadors and priests that cannibalism existed in a large degree among the Aztecs who would be considered one of the successor civilizations following the Nephite/Lamanite/Mayan time period.  Aztec war expeditions would be used to claim more sacrificial victims.  Most of the sacrifices involved tearing out the heart, offering it to the sun and a little blood to the idols.  The corpse was then tumbled down the steps of the pyramid and carried off to be butchered.  The head went on the local skull rack, displayed in central plazas along the temple-pyramids.  At least three of the limbs were the property of the captor if he had seized the prisoner without assistance in battle.  Later, at a feast given at the captor's quarters the central dish was a stew of tomatoes, peppers, and the limbs of his victim.  The remaining torso, in Tenochtitlan at least, went to the royal zoo where it was used to feed carnivorous mammals, birds, and snakes. 

Archaeologists excavating at an Aztec sacrificial site in the Tlatelolco section of Mexico City between 1960 and 1969 have uncovered headless human rib cages missing the limb bones.  Along with these remains were some razor sharp obsidian blades, which are believed to be used in the butchering process.  Also discovered were piles of human skulls, which apparently had been broken open to obtain the brains, possibly a choice delicacy reserved for the priesthood, and to mount the skull son a ceremonial rack.

Anthropologist Christy Turner
at Chaco Canyon

The late Anthropologist and Professor at Arizona State University Christy Turner and his late wife Jacqueline Adams Turner put together a controversial but ground breaking book entitled, "Man Corn" named after the Nahuatl word tlacatlaolli, a "sacred meal of sacrificed human meat, cooked with corn".  In their book the Turners discuss 76 Anasazi sites where cannibalism or other violence occurred (most notable and the primary location is in Chaco Canyon).  Of the 76 sites 31 were located in New Mexico, 18 from Arizona, 16 from Colorado, 10 in Utah, and one from Casas Grandes (Paquime) in northern Mexico.  Of the 76 cases the Turners confirmed 54 instances of cannibalism.  The sites that do exhibit cannibalism show equal frequency of victims among adult male and females.  The majority of the cannibalism appears to have taken place between 900-1300 AD (with some instances taking place before and after).

As I stated earlier the idea of cannibalism among the Anasazi is a controversial one to say the least.  This is because the Hopi and many other Pueblo tribes state that their traditional stories and histories do not speak of any sort of cannibalism.  They do not deny violence and other hideous instances that spawned migrations in the past but the act of cannibalism usually denotes a degenerate society of savages which creates a negative connotation on the whole perspective of the Hopi and Anasazi.  This has been highly disputed among anthropologists and archaeologists and traditional Native Americans as well.  Some of Turners earlier studies were on a group of bones found on Polacca Wash on the Hopi Reservation that he stated showed all six of his forensic signs of cannibalism.  He traced this activity to the traditional stories of the destruction of the ancient Hopi village of Awatovi, which is partially why many Hopi find the claim absurd.  He did advise that if any of the forensic signs were missing than the claim of cannibalism was dismissed immediately.  These signs include the following:

cuts from dismemberment

 1. Cuts: Bones show signs of chopping, dismemberment, butchering and cutting by stone tools.  These are distinct marks especially when cutting tendons on round bones.  Stone scrappers also leave a distinctive scratch pattern.

Anvil abrasions

 2. Anvil abrasions:  These are faint parallel marks caused when a bone (skull) is braced on a larger stone and then a smaller stone is used to smash or crack it open.  Slippage takes place when the blow hits causing the distinctive scratches.

Burns on skull

 3. Burns: Skulls in particular, often show burn-marks on the back or top of the head.  These burns indicate that the head was set, face up, on coals in order to roast the brains.

Crushed bone exposing the marrow

 4. Marrow: Large bones have been broken open for the marrow.  marrow is a rich source of protein, but to get to it, the bones must be smashed open.

Crushing Vertebra for bone cake

 5. No Vertebrae: Most of the vertebrae and spongy bones are missing.  This is because they are full of marrow and can be used to make what is called "bone cake" (commonly done with animal vertebrae) or to extract grease through boiling. 

Pot Polish seen through
 magnifying glass

6.  Pot Polish: Pot polish is evidence that bones have been boiled in a ceramic pot.  Bones that have been cooked in a clay pot show a faint beveling and polishing at the tips from scraping against the coarse interior of the pot.  Many of these bones have been broken to the same size as animal bones to fit into the Anasazi pot.







Awatovi Ruins

 Awatovi was a village destroyed in the 1600's because a lot of the residents had converted to Christianity and also practiced witchcraft under the influence of the Spanish friars.  The other Hopi villages decided to purge this tribe and did so by killing all the men inside of the kiva and escorting the women and children away. According to Turner the women and children were then tortured, and dismembered to be eaten.  He traces the practice of cannibalism that would have been present at this case in Awatovi back to other Anasazi locations, in the four corners region but in particular to the location of Chaco Canyon where he has found bones showing all six designated cannibalistic signs. 

Turner is supported by other archaeologists and anthropologists in his findings but he also has those who disagree who state that the bone damage and boilings could have been done as a way to purge witchcraft minus the cannibalism.  This is an option that could easily be the truth but the problem is that at another site in Colorado called Cowboy Wash the smoking gun seems to have been found.  The Hopi tribal Archaeologist Kurt Dongoske in defending against cannibalism suggested that cannibalism could not be proven until " you actually find human remains in prehistoric human excrement".   At Cowboy wash archaeologists found three kivas with all the signs of cannibalism except in the third kiva they found what was classified as "macrobotanical remain".  These remains were tested by the University of Nebraska and confirmed that the remains were coprolite formed from digested human meat.  It was later tested by the University of Colorado for the presence of human myoglobin (a protein found only in skeletal and heart muscle and could not get into the intestinal tract except through eating.  It tested positive, human DNA in ancient excrement.

I don't know how to dispute those findings but with all things archaeology I don't set anything in stone.  With that said Emory Sekaquaptewa who was a Hopi Tribal Council member stated, "I believe there were times in the Southwest when cannibalism was necessary.  As a child, I heard stories of historic Pueblo people's resorting to eating other people during times of extreme stress." (Swentzell) "There were also people who had traditions of human sacrifice, who were also not admitted (into Hopi)."

Turner proposed that this cannibalism came from civilizations from the south mainly in Mesoamerica with the Toltec and Aztecs.  he stated, "We propose that these southerners were practitioners of the Xipe-Totec (or Maasaw) and the Tezcatlipoca- Quetzalcoatl (plumed serpent) cults.  They entered the San Juan basin around AD. 900and found a suspicious but plaint population whom they terrorized into reproducing the theocratic lifestyle they had previously known in Mesoamerica.  The Mexicans achieved their objectives through the use of warfare, violent example, and terrifying cult ceremonies that included human sacrifice and cannibalism.  after the abandonment of Chaco, human sacrifices, and cannibalism all but disappeared, suggesting some kind of prehistoric discontinuity."

Paquime in Chihuahua Mexico

So here we have the successor civilizations that followed the Nephite/Lamanite societies still showing the practice of cannibalism for a time.  Although the practice was at a different level with each civilization (some more than others) it looks as though the practice did continue through the Mayan (Nephite/Lamanite), Toltec, Aztec and Anasazi societies as well. Another interest correlation is the route this practice spread.  It appears to be the same route used for mass trading between these societies.  This was a northern route from Mesoamerica Guatemala area north through Mexico all the way to northern Mexico to the Paquime location and continued northward into what is now southern United States in the Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam area.  Relics and practices between these societies also stand as proof of influence from Mesoamerica.  With that said I currently know of no cannibalistic evidence in the Hohokam society which is ironic being further south and more influenced by Mesoamerica.  This may be because research on the Hohokam has only grown in recent years and some of their largest excavation sites have been buried by the Gila River Native community for preservation (Snaketown).  Future research of the Hohokam my be able to further this cannibalistic suggestion. 

In closing I would like to add that when Nephites put this evil practice into play they did it as an act of bravery as stated in Mormon's second epistle to his son Moroni noted above.  It seems it was this same mind set that existed among the Aztecs and possibly the Anasazi.  Brutality never was bravery and although it makes for an interesting correspondence in this study of cannibalism and the Book of Mormon, the fact that we are putting this study together off of the remains of civilizations shows that the Lord will not protect those who uphold and practice these barbaric acts.   It is also of interest that around this same timeframe that Chaco Canyon was abandoned and places like Mesa Verde, Montezumas Castle and other cliff dwellings  became the hideout homes as if hiding from someone or something.  Well that all makes since in this light.






 

Wicked King Noah's Towers and the Book of Mormon's Authenticity

Wicked King Noah

Sometimes I design a blog post on what I have been recently studying and sometimes I am able to be inspired in other ways.  I had actually started putting together my own artwork on a Mesoamerican themed wicked king Noah.  It just so happens in my family scripture study we are commencing the chapters that he is involved with.  In my extracurricular reading of John Sorenson's "Mormons Codex" I just happened to stumble across a few interesting insights and possible evidences that revolve around the information shared about king Noah.  So I figured that these three factors pointing towards king Noah were more than enough guidance to put together a wicked king Noah blog post.

 Here is what John Sorenson had to say when speaking about pyramid towers at Kaminaljuyu (LDS scholars top perspective for the Land of Nephi in the Book of Mormon) in the Southern Guatemalan highlands.  He stated that archaeologists De Leon and Valdes suggested that one or more of the pyramid towers in Kaminaljuyu (500-200 BC) may have served as a watchtower to detect "what was going on at a distance."  The Book of Mormon states that during this same time period that Zeniffite king Noah "built a tower near the temple [in Nephi]; yea, a very high tower, even so high that he could stand upon the top thereof and ...look over all the land round about" (Mosiah 11:12).  Both agreeing that pyramid structures at this location could easily have been used as a military watchtower. 

Sorenson continues, "Orellana reports that when war was imminent among the Spanish conquest-period Tzutujils adjacent to the Valley of Guatemala, male warriors (militia) gathered to the ruler's palace where he issued to them bows, arrows, spears, shields, and standards of featherwork that had been stored there. (Orellana Tzutujil Mayas, 59.) King Zeniff in the Book of Mormon (king Noah's father) speaks of an occasion when the Lamanite forces attacked some of his people, whereupon "they fled, all that were not overtaken, even into the city of Nephi, where the king dwelt.  And ...I did arm them with and with arrows, with swords, ...and with all manner of weapons... and I and my people did go forth against the Lamanites to battle" (Mosiah 9:14-16).  Coincidentally, the most plausible geographical reconstruction of where that scene was played out turns out to be no more than 20 to 30 miles from where the Tzutujil Indians did exactly the same thing some 1500 years later!"

Archaeologist Edwin M. Shook

King Noah also caused that a "great tower" was built on a hill north of the land Shilom (Mosiah 11:13).  Sorenson noted that "the hill served as a point of reference for Nephite groups traveling between the land of Nephi and Zarahemla (v. 13; 7:5-6, 17), so it had to be quite a prominent landmark."  He then went on to point out that over 60 years ago archaeologist Edwin M. Shook reported finding the remains of a pyramid that sat up a hill known as Alux that was between Guatemala City and San Lucas Sacatepéquez.  Today apparently it is a major highway between western Guatemala and Mexico, "which follows an ancient route, half encircles its base."   Because of all the correlations between this hill in the land of Shilom and modern day Alux Archaeologist John Clark inspected this hilltop in 2005.  He was unable to find any of the remains spoken of by Shook.  But also advised that the top of the hill which is now known as Cerro Alux and houses communication installations as well as a forest preserve commonly used by bird watchers.  So Sorenson advises that "if remains of the pyramid mound Shook reported should yet be found there and dated to about the second century BC, those facts would make the archaeological correspondence particularly striking.

The above noted correspondences will require more work and research but already show promising insights.  Now due to modern growth and population much of the required research may never take place or may have already damaged or destroyed any traces of these ruins.  Only time will tell.  The Book of Mormon has left enough information to hopefully intrigue future researchers to confirm or deny this possibility.
 

Near Death Experiences, Angelic Visitors The Maya, Hopi And The Book of Mormon

Ammon preaching to King Lamoni

The inspiration behind this blog post was based off of an article written by Mark Alan Wright out of the Studies in the Bible and Antiquity ( According to Their Language, unto Their understanding": The Cultural Context of Hierophanies and Theophanies in Latter-day Saint Canon, Mark Alan Wright Studies in the Bible and Antiquity: Volume - 3, Pages: 51–65 Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 2011.)  In his article he proposed that the prophets rooted in the Book of Mormon after being well established in the New World (presumably Mesoamerica) received their callings in a different manner than those prophets who were still influenced by the Old World or Jerusalem (namely Lehi and Nephi and Jacob).  The manner that the New World prophets received their callings was to be overcome by the spirit and falling to the earth similar to a near death experience only to be spiritually reborn and come out of the coma like scenario prophesying of the Lord Jesus Christ.  Now this process may seem different or foreign to modern readers but as Mark states, “to the Nephites, living in an ancient Mesoamerican setting, falling to the earth as if dead is pregnant with meaning. Modern Western culture would classify such episodes as near-death experiences, but an examination of the specific cultural context in which the Book of Mormon events likely took place provides a more nuanced understanding of this obscure practice.”

Mark goes on to say, “Ethnographic work among traditional societies has shown that holy men of various types—broadly referred to as shamans—commonly receive their calling near-death experiences. Anthropologist Frank J. Lipp notes in reference to modern Mesoamerican shaman-priests called curanderos (curers or healers): "Divine election occurs within a context of some physical or emotional crisis," such as "a severe, chronic, or life-threatening sickness." While in this state they have a vivid dream where "the individual is informed by a spirit being," such as an angel, that "she or he will receive the divine gift to cure illnesses." The healing process is often aided by the prayers and ritual actions of another curandero on behalf of the critically ill individuals. Once recovered, the newly called shamans possess a power and authority that is recognized by the members of their community because of their shared cultural language. According to Lipp, "During the initiatory dream vision the individual may experience temporary insanity or unconsciousness," and it is through this near-death experience that "he or she is reborn as a person with shamanic power and knowledge." 

The Book of Mormon is full of examples of individuals who experience these near death/healing/voice of warning experiences.  The first example that we encounter is with Alma the younger and the sons of Mosiah.  They had been opposing the church and causing contention and their fathers had been praying for some sort of an intervention considering Alma’s father was a prophet and Mosiah was a king in the land.  They (Alma the younger and the sons of Mosiah) experienced a visitation from an angel and were threatened with destruction, Alma fell to earth and became so weak that he could neither speak nor move his hands (Mosiah 27:19). After Alma's helpless body was carried back to his home by his friends (who had also fallen to the earth but were not the focus of the angel's rebuke and therefore quickly recovered), Alma's father rejoiced, acknowledging the Lord's hand in what had transpired. What his father did next is significant: "He caused that the priests should assemble themselves together; and they began to fast, and to pray to the Lord their God that he would open the mouth of Alma, that he might speak, and also that his limbs might receive their strength" (Mosiah 27:22). These priests were acting in their capacity as curanderos, or healers. Alma was healed, not just physically, but spiritually as well. His exquisite and bitter pain was replaced by exquisite and sweet joy (Alma 36:21). He clearly linked his physical healing with his spiritual healing when he declared, "My limbs did receive their strength again, and I stood upon my feet, and did manifest unto the people that I had been born of God" (Alma 36:23). 

There are many more examples of this in the Book of Mormon another is that of Zeezrom who was "scorched with a burning heat" that was caused by "the great tribulations of his mind on account of his wickedness" (Alma 15:3) and his fear that Alma and Amulek "had been slain because of his own iniquity" (Alma 15:3). Last but not least Mark points out the experience of Ammon one of the sons of Mosiah saying, “Ammon appears to have fallen to the earth more than any other individual in the Book of Mormon. His initial conversion experience occurred when the angel rebuked him and his brothers along with Alma (Mosiah 27:12). As discussed above, he fell to the earth again when King Lamoni and his wife were converted (Alma 19:14) and once more when he was overcome with joy as he and his brothers chanced upon Alma in the wilderness (Alma 27:17). In his Mesoamerican context, Ammon's experiences—rather than being viewed as a sign of physical weakness or perhaps a case of spiritual hypersensitivity—would actually have imbued him with more spiritual potency as a holy man. Among the modern Tzotzil Maya of Chamula, for example, "the ability to cure illnesses of increasing severity is dependent upon the number of times the shaman has lost consciousness in a trance." 

The Hopi Sun Chief Don C. Tayalesva

What I would like to add is that the same practice was had among the Hopi who are descendents of the Olmec, Maya and Aztec civilizations who had migrated north into what is now southwest United States.  In the autobiography of Don C. Talayesva edited by Leo Simmons called “Sun Chief” Don speaks about his near death experience that was given him as a voice of warning from his guardian spirit lead him to what the Hopi call the House of the Dead.   Don described the experience like this.

 "Then I saw a tall human being standing by my bed in Katcina costume.  He was well dressed in a dancing kilt and a sash, was barefoot, and wore long black hair hanging down his back.  He had a soft prayer feather (nakwakwosi) in his hair and carried a blue one in his left hand-blue being the color which signifies the west and the home of the dead.  He wore beads and looked wonderful as he watched me.  When the nurses brought food, he said, “My son, you had better eat.  Your time is up.  You shall travel to the place where the dead live and see what it is like.” I saw the door swing slowly back and forth on its hinges and stop just a little open.  A cold numbness crept up my body; my eyes closed; and I knew I was dying.  The strange human being said, “Now, my boy, you are to learn a lesson.  I have been guarding you all your life, but you have been careless.  You shall travel to the House of the Dead and learn that life is important.  The path is already made for you.  You had better hurry; and perhaps you will get back before they bury your body.  I am your Guardian Spirit (dumalaitaka).  I will wait here and watch over your body; but I shall also protect you on your journey.” 

In his journey Don saw and was chased by Masau’u the god of Death. Apparently this was a scare tactic according to his guardian Katcina spirit to make him live a better life.  Upon coming out of the experience he states, “The head nurse said, “Sonny, you passed away last night, but did not cool of quite like a dead person.  Your heart kept on beating slowly and your pulse moved a little, so we did not bury you.”  When he explained this to Chief Tewaquaptewa he was advised that his journey was true as it had happened to others.  His mother had a similar experience and his grandfather prophesied that he would become an important man in the ceremonies.    

Apparently the act of having a near death experience or vision upon the sick was a very common form of humbling, teaching and calling someone to become a servant of the Lord.  As can be seen this was practiced among the cultures of Mesoamerica and their relatives cultures such as the Hopi.  When looked upon in these ancient contexts we once again bring better understanding of Nephite and Lamanite practices to our modern comprehension and the Book of Mormon continues to shine.

Pre Classic Guatemalan Mayan Figurines and Early Nephite Migrations



Lighter and Darker Mayan
Figurines

I will once again be referring back to John Sorenson's book "Mormons Codex" for this blog post.  Sorenson points out an interesting correlation between ancient figurines found in the Guatemalan highlands and the timeframe of the early Nephite migrations out of the land of Nephi to Zarahemla.   Sorenson states, "In the Pre-Classic Las Charcas and Providencia periods in the Valley of Guatemala around 600-300 BC, nearly all of the figurines had a white surface (either by being made of an unslipped light-colored clay or of a darker clay covered with a white slip).  Yet in the succeeding (Verbena) phase (ca. 200 BC), figurines either were exclusively of unslipped red/brown paste or else were red slipped.  Why the later images were colored differently is hard to explain unless they reflected different skin pigmentations of the original living models.  The systematic change in appearance would appear to mirrored change in the population's predominant pigmentation.  According to the Book of Mormon, the fair-skinned Nephites who dwelt in the land of Nephi from 600 to near 200 BC were replaced by darker Lamanites around the later date.



slipped clay figurine

Most Book of Mormon scholars associate the land of Nephi with the ancient city of Kaminaljuyu which is located in the highlands of Guatemala (southern Guatemala).  From around 600 BC, to around 300-200 BC it would have been the main settlement of lighter skinned Nephites.  In between 300-200 BC the Nephites under the direction on Mosiah (the first) migrated away from their
enemies the darker skinned Lamanites and migrated north to the land of Zarahemla.  At this point the Lamanites inhabited the land of Nephi unto themselves.  This would explain the change of pigmentation on the population around the 200 BC mark.  Sorensen explained that his research on these figurines stems from some of the work from the archaeologist Alfred V. Kidder.  There will need to be further research and studies on these correlations in the future but so far what has been observed seems very promising.